Prokaryotes Vs. Eukaryotes: Key Differences

Prokaryotes are microscopic, single-celled organisms, that do not have a nucleus or other specialized organelles. Bacteria and Archaea are the most common types of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes, which include plants, animals, fungi, and protists, are the other major type of cell. Therefore, it’s important to understand the key differences in cellular structure that sets apart prokaryotes from eukaryotes because identifying these microorganisms correctly is critical in fields ranging from medicine to environmental science.

Alright, buckle up, because we’re about to dive headfirst into a world smaller than you can imagine, yet more influential than you could ever believe! We’re talking about prokaryotes – the OG life forms that have been running the show since way before dinosaurs were even a twinkle in evolution’s eye.

So, what exactly are prokaryotes? Well, in the simplest terms, they’re single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus, that fancy control center found in our cells. Think of them as the rebels of the cellular world – no need for fancy organelles or complicated structures! This absence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles is their defining feature, setting them apart from their more complex cousins, eukaryotic cells.

Speaking of cousins, let’s quickly address the elephant in the room: Eukaryotic cells. These are the cells that make up plants, animals, fungi, and protists – basically, anything that isn’t a prokaryote. The biggest difference? Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, giving them a more organized and complex structure. Think of prokaryotes as a simple studio apartment, while eukaryotes are like a multi-story mansion!

Now, let’s talk about the grand scheme of things. Life on Earth is divided into three domains: Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea. Notice anything interesting? That’s right, Bacteria and Archaea are both prokaryotic! This means that despite their differences, they share that fundamental characteristic of lacking a nucleus.

But don’t let their simplicity fool you! Prokaryotes are everywhere. In fact, they were the first life forms on Earth, paving the way for everything that came after. They thrive in soil, oceans, hot springs, ice caps, and even inside your very own body. From helping us digest our food to cycling essential nutrients in the environment, prokaryotes play a crucial role in maintaining the health of our planet and its ecosystems. They may be unseen, but they are far from unimportant! Their abundance and influence are truly mind-boggling.

Unveiling the Prokaryotic Blueprint: A Deep Dive Inside

Alright, buckle up, because we’re about to shrink down and take a tour of the inner workings of a prokaryote! Forget fancy organelles and complicated compartments; we’re going back to basics, where simplicity reigns supreme. But don’t let that fool you, these little guys are incredibly efficient and ingeniously designed. We are going to learn about prokaryotic cell structures, the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleoid, ribosomes, and the external structures.

First things first: Picture a tiny, self-contained unit – that’s your average prokaryotic cell. A defining feature is the absence of a nucleus; their genetic material chills in a region called the nucleoid. Unlike our cells, there are no membrane-bound organelles floating around; it’s more like a cozy, uncluttered studio apartment than a sprawling mansion.

The Mighty Cell Wall: Prokaryotic Armor

Every cell has a wall. Think of the cell wall as the cell’s suit of armor, providing protection and maintaining its shape. In Bacteria, this armor is made of a unique substance called peptidoglycan. Imagine a mesh-like structure, kind of like a chain-link fence, but made of sugars and amino acids. This peptidoglycan layer is crucial for bacterial survival, and it’s also the target of many antibiotics – talk about a weak spot! Archaea, being the rebels they are, ditch the peptidoglycan and use other materials to build their walls, showing off their independent streak.

Gram Staining: A Colorful Detective Tool

Here’s a fun fact: Scientists use a technique called Gram staining to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer, which stains purple, while Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer and an outer membrane, causing them to stain pink. This simple test helps us quickly identify and understand different types of bacteria, like a colorful bacterial lineup!

The Plasma Membrane: Gatekeeper of the Cell

Lining the interior is the plasma membrane, a crucial structure found in all cells. Think of it as the cell’s border control, selectively allowing substances in and out. This membrane ensures the cell’s integrity and carefully regulates what enters and exits, maintaining a stable internal environment.

The Cytoplasm: The Cell’s Inner World

Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, a gel-like substance that fills the cell. It’s like the cell’s internal soup, containing everything needed for life, including enzymes, nutrients, and the all-important genetic material. This is where all the action happens!

The Nucleoid: DNA Central

Forget a nucleus; prokaryotes have a nucleoid, a central region where their genetic material hangs out. This isn’t just any DNA; it’s usually a single circular chromosome, neatly packed to fit inside.

Ribosomes: The Protein Factories

No cell is complete without ribosomes, the protein-making machines. They translate genetic code into proteins, essential for every cellular function. Interestingly, prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) are structurally different from eukaryotic ribosomes (80S), and this difference is a key target for some antibiotics, allowing them to disrupt bacterial protein synthesis without harming our cells.

Plasmids: Extra Perks

Some prokaryotes also carry plasmids, small, circular DNA molecules that contain extra genes. These plasmids can be swapped between bacteria in a process called horizontal gene transfer, spreading beneficial traits like antibiotic resistance.

External Structures: Adding Flair and Function

Prokaryotes aren’t just blobs; they often sport external structures for movement and attachment:

• Flagella: These whip-like appendages act as propellers, allowing bacteria to swim towards food or away from danger. They come in various arrangements, like monotrichous (one flagellum) or amphitrichous (flagella at both ends).
• Pili/Fimbriae: These hair-like structures help bacteria stick to surfaces, like our cells or other bacteria. They’re also crucial for conjugation, where bacteria exchange genetic material.
• Capsules: Some bacteria have a capsule, a slimy outer layer that protects them from the environment and our immune systems.

The Missing Pieces: No Organelles Allowed!

One of the defining features of prokaryotes is the absence of membrane-bound organelles. No mitochondria, no endoplasmic reticulum, no Golgi apparatus – it’s a streamlined, no-frills design. This simplicity allows prokaryotes to reproduce quickly and efficiently, making them incredibly adaptable to various environments.

So there you have it – a whirlwind tour of the prokaryotic cell! From the sturdy cell wall to the busy ribosomes, every component plays a crucial role in the life of these microscopic marvels. Next time you think about bacteria, remember the intricate simplicity that lies beneath their tiny exteriors.

Bacteria vs. Archaea: A Tale of Two Domains

So, you’ve met the prokaryotes. Now, let’s dive into a bit of family drama – or rather, domain drama! Because within the prokaryotic world, there are two main players: Bacteria and Archaea. They’re both single-celled, nucleus-free, and generally tiny, but that’s where some of the similarities end. Think of it like this: they’re both dogs, but one’s a chill Labrador, and the other’s a sassy Chihuahua!

Bacteria: The Ubiquitous Workhorses

Bacteria are everywhere. Seriously, everywhere. From the soil beneath your feet to the very depths of the ocean, to even inside your gut, they’re the workhorses of the microbial world. They’re incredibly abundant and have a stunning range of metabolic capabilities, meaning they can do all sorts of crazy things to get their energy!

Let’s meet a few characters:

• Escherichia coli (E. coli): This little guy gets a bad rap, but most strains are perfectly harmless and even helpful, residing in our gut and aiding in digestion. However, some E. coli strains can be nasty, causing food poisoning and other unpleasantness. It’s a classic example of “know thy neighbor” even in your own intestines!

• Bacillus subtilis: Found chilling in the soil, Bacillus subtilis is a veritable enzyme factory. We use it in all sorts of industrial applications, like producing enzymes for detergents and even some food products. This is why you should thank bacteria for cleaning your clothes, weird right?

• Streptococcus: This one is a mixed bag. Some Streptococcus species are the culprits behind strep throat and other infections, making them the villains of our story. But others are beneficial, playing a role in fermentation and other processes. It is kind of like the good, the bad, and the ugly but with microbes.

Archaea: The Extreme Pioneers

Now, let’s talk about Archaea. These guys are the rebels of the prokaryotic world. While they look similar to bacteria under a microscope, they’re genetically and biochemically distinct. One of their defining features is their ability to thrive in extreme environments.

Think of them as the daredevils of the microbial world! They are extremophiles that have been shown to withstand environments such as:

• Methanogens: They live in anaerobic environments (like swamps and animal guts) and produce methane gas as a byproduct. They’re basically the reason why some swamps smell a bit funky!

• Halophiles: They are salt-loving archaea that can survive in extremely salty environments, like the Dead Sea or salt lakes. They have special adaptations to prevent dehydration in these harsh conditions.

• Thermophiles: Thriving in high temperatures, these archaea can be found in hot springs and hydrothermal vents, where temperatures can exceed the boiling point of water. They have evolved enzymes and proteins that remain stable at these extreme temperatures.

Bacteria vs. Archaea: A Quick Cheat Sheet

Feature	Bacteria	Archaea
Cell Wall	Peptidoglycan present	No peptidoglycan; various other compositions
Membrane Lipids	Fatty acids linked by ester bonds	Isoprenoids linked by ether bonds
Ribosomal RNA	Unique sequences	Unique sequences
Extreme Environments	Some can tolerate, but not as common	Many are extremophiles

Life Processes: How Prokaryotes Thrive and Evolve

So, prokaryotes might not have fancy organelles like us eukaryotes, but trust me, they’ve got their own bag of tricks to keep the party going. From making more of themselves to swapping genetic secrets and fueling up, these tiny dynamos have mastered the art of survival. Let’s dive into how they do it!

Binary Fission: The Prokaryotic Copy Machine

Forget complicated cell division – prokaryotes keep it simple with binary fission! Think of it like splitting a cookie in half, but with way more precision.

1. DNA replication: First, the cell diligently copies its single, circular chromosome. This is the most important process because without the genetic material the cell is like a car without an engine.
2. Cell elongation: The cell grows longer, and the two DNA copies move to opposite ends.
3. Septum formation: The cell membrane starts to pinch inward, forming a dividing wall called a septum.
4. Cell division: Finally, the cell splits into two identical daughter cells, each with its own copy of the DNA. Voila! Two new prokaryotes ready to rock and roll. This step is important because that is where a single cell becomes two.

It’s quick, it’s efficient, and it’s how prokaryotic populations can explode in no time. A single bacterium can turn into millions in just a few hours under the right conditions. It does not get more efficient then that!

Horizontal Gene Transfer: Sharing is Caring (Especially DNA)

Prokaryotes aren’t always about keeping things to themselves. They’re also notorious for swapping genes with each other through something called horizontal gene transfer. This is important because horizontal gene transfer allows them to adapt quickly to new environments and even acquire cool new abilities. Think of it as downloading new software updates directly into their DNA! Here are the three main ways they do it:

• Conjugation: Imagine two prokaryotes connecting with a tiny bridge (a pilus) and passing DNA directly from one to the other. It’s like a microscopic high-five with a side of genetic material!
• Transduction: Viruses called bacteriophages sometimes accidentally grab a piece of DNA from one bacterium and inject it into another. It’s like a viral delivery service for genetic packages.
• Transformation: Some prokaryotes can pick up stray DNA fragments floating around in their environment and incorporate them into their own genome. It’s like finding a winning lottery ticket on the sidewalk and cashing it in!

Metabolism: Fueling the Prokaryotic Engine

Prokaryotes are the ultimate metabolic chameleons, able to thrive in almost any environment thanks to their diverse ways of obtaining energy and carbon.

• Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs: Autotrophs are like plants – they can make their own food from inorganic sources like carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are like us – they need to eat organic molecules to get their carbon.
• Aerobes vs. Anaerobes: Aerobes need oxygen to survive, while anaerobes can’t stand it. Some are even killed by oxygen!
• Chemotrophs vs. Phototrophs: Chemotrophs get their energy from chemical compounds, while phototrophs use sunlight.

This metabolic flexibility is what allows prokaryotes to colonize every nook and cranny of our planet, from the deepest ocean trenches to the hottest geothermal vents.

So, there you have it – a glimpse into the amazing life processes of prokaryotes! These tiny organisms may be simple in structure, but their ability to reproduce, adapt, and thrive is nothing short of remarkable.

Ecological Powerhouses: The Unsung Heroes of Our Planet

Prokaryotes aren’t just tiny blobs swimming around; they’re the ultimate recyclers, the nitrogen whisperers, and the gatekeepers of health! Let’s dive into the incredible world of these ecological powerhouses and see how they keep our planet humming.

Decomposers: Nature’s Clean-Up Crew

Imagine a world overflowing with dead leaves, fallen trees, and… well, you get the picture. Thanks to prokaryotes, we don’t live in a giant garbage dump! These microscopic marvels are the decomposers of the ecosystem. They break down complex organic matter into simpler substances, like carbon and nitrogen, which are then released back into the environment. This process is crucial for recycling nutrients and ensuring that plants have the building blocks they need to thrive. They are the earth’s sanitation department, constantly cleaning up the mess and making sure everything goes back into the cycle of life. Think of them as the tiny, tireless custodians of the Earth!

Nitrogen Fixation: Turning Air into Plant Food

Nitrogen is essential for plant growth, but plants can’t directly use the nitrogen gas in the atmosphere. Enter the nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes! These incredible organisms have the unique ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, a form that plants can use. This process, called nitrogen fixation, is vital for agriculture and the health of natural ecosystems. Without these microscopic nitrogen fixers, we’d be facing some serious food shortages and barren landscapes. In other words, they’re turning thin air into dinner for plants and, ultimately, for us!

Symbiosis: It Takes a Village (Even in the Microscopic World)

Prokaryotes are masters of teamwork, forming symbiotic relationships with all sorts of organisms.

Mutualism, Commensalism and Parasitism

• Mutualism: Everyone benefits! Think of nitrogen-fixing bacteria living in the roots of plants. The bacteria get a cozy home, and the plants get a steady supply of nitrogen. It’s a win-win situation.
• Commensalism: One organism benefits, and the other is neither harmed nor helped. Some bacteria live on our skin, happily munching away, while we barely notice they’re there.
• Parasitism: One organism benefits at the expense of the other. This is where the pathogenic prokaryotes come in, causing disease and mayhem (more on that later!).

Examples in Real Life

• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in plant roots: These little guys are the unsung heroes of agriculture, helping crops grow strong and healthy.
• Gut bacteria in animals: From cows to humans, many animals rely on gut bacteria to help them digest food and absorb nutrients. It’s like having a tiny, helpful roommate living in your belly!

Pathogens: The Dark Side of the Prokaryotic World

Not all prokaryotes are friendly helpers. Some are pathogens, meaning they can cause diseases in plants, animals, and even us.

Mechanisms of Pathogenesis

• Toxin production: Some bacteria release toxins that damage host cells and tissues. Think of Clostridium botulinum, which produces botulinum toxin, one of the most potent neurotoxins known to humankind.
• Invasion: Some bacteria invade host cells and tissues, causing damage and inflammation. Streptococcus pneumoniae, for example, can invade the lungs and cause pneumonia.

While pathogens can be scary, it’s important to remember that they’re just a small fraction of the prokaryotic world. Most prokaryotes are either beneficial or harmless.

Human Microbiome: The Zoo Inside You

Did you know that you’re carrying around trillions of prokaryotes right now? This community of microorganisms, known as the human microbiome, lives in and on your body, playing a crucial role in your health.

Their Roles and Importance

• Digestion: Gut bacteria help us digest food, especially complex carbohydrates that our bodies can’t break down on their own.
• Immunity: The microbiome helps train our immune system to recognize and fight off harmful pathogens.
• Overall health: The microbiome has been linked to everything from mental health to weight management. It’s like having a tiny ecosystem inside you, working hard to keep you healthy and happy.

So next time you think about prokaryotes, remember that they’re not just tiny, simple organisms. They’re ecological powerhouses, playing vital roles in everything from nutrient cycling to human health. Appreciating their importance is key to understanding the delicate balance of our planet and the intricate web of life that connects us all.

Shapes and Sizes: A Microscopic World of Diversity

Alright, microbial explorers, let’s shrink down and dive into the itty-bitty world of prokaryotes! Forget your centimeters and inches; here, we measure things in micrometers (µm). One micrometer is a thousandth of a millimeter – that’s small! These minuscule marvels come in a surprisingly diverse array of shapes and arrangements. Think of them as nature’s Lego bricks, building all sorts of tiny structures.

Cocci: The Spherical Stars

First up, we have the cocci (singular: coccus). Imagine tiny little spheres, like microscopic marbles. They can hang out solo, but often they prefer company. When cocci pair up, they’re called diplococci (think double trouble!). Chain gangs of cocci are known as streptococci (strepto means chain), like the ones that cause strep throat. And when they really get social, forming grape-like clusters, they’re staphylococci (staphylo means cluster). Staphylococcus aureus is a well-known example and can cause a variety of infections.

Bacilli: The Rod-Shaped Rascals

Next, we have the bacilli (singular: bacillus). These are rod-shaped prokaryotes, like miniature hot dogs or tiny pills. They can be solitary single bacilli, or they can form chains called streptobacilli. Bacillus anthracis, the cause of anthrax, is a notorious example.

Spirilla: The Swirly Swimmers

If you’re looking for something with a bit more flair, check out the spirilla (singular: spirillum). These are spiral-shaped bacteria, like tiny corkscrews. They’re not quite as flexible as spirochetes (which have an internal flagella that gives them a corkscrew shape) but are still pretty mobile.

Vibrios: The Comma Crew

Last but not least, we have the vibrios. These are comma-shaped prokaryotes. Think of them as slightly bent bacilli. Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium responsible for cholera, is a classic example of a vibrio.

Biofilms: United We Stand

Now, let’s talk about something really cool: biofilms. Imagine a city built by bacteria on a surface. That’s essentially what a biofilm is—a community of prokaryotes attached to a surface, encased in a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). They’re like microbial metropolises! You can find them everywhere: on medical implants (a real concern!), in your drains, and, yes, even on your teeth as dental plaque. Biofilms are incredibly important because they are much more resistant to antibiotics and disinfectants than individual, free-floating cells. This makes them tough to get rid of and can lead to persistent infections.

Evolutionary Pioneers: The Ancestry of Life

• First Life Forms on Earth:

  Alright, picture this: Earth, billions of years ago. The planet is a chaotic mess, but bubbling up in some primordial soup are the OGs of life – prokaryotes! These tiny titans were the first to throw a party on planet Earth, and they definitely didn’t wait for an RSVP. They transformed the atmosphere, laid the groundwork for all future life, and basically wrote the instruction manual that every other organism has been copying since.

  These single-celled superstars were tough cookies, adapting to conditions that would make us humans faint faster than you can say “sterile environment.” From the scorching heat of volcanic vents to the crushing depths of the ocean, prokaryotes proved that life, uh, finds a way! They truly shaped our environment and even paved the way for more complex organisms to evolve, showing up as the “first life form on earth”.

• Endosymbiotic Theory:

  Fast forward a bit, and things are getting interesting. Enter the endosymbiotic theory, which is basically the ultimate tale of cellular roommates. This theory tells the wild story of how eukaryotic cells – the ones with all the fancy organelles like mitochondria (the powerhouses of the cell) and chloroplasts (where photosynthesis happens) – didn’t just pop into existence out of thin air. They actually started as prokaryotes!

  The theory proposes that some ancient prokaryotic cells decided to engulf other prokaryotic cells, but instead of digesting them, they formed a symbiotic relationship. The engulfed cells became what we now know as mitochondria and chloroplasts, living and working inside their host cells. It’s like the cellular version of moving in with your best friend and then realizing you’re way more productive together! And this amazing evolutionary event is why you can thank prokaryotes for every breath you take and every plant you see.

Harnessing Prokaryotes: Applications in Biotechnology

• Biotechnology: Let’s dive into the incredible ways we’re using these tiny titans in industries and medicine. Think of prokaryotes as miniature factories and doctors, working tirelessly for us!

  • Production of antibiotics, enzymes, and biofuels: Ever wondered how we get life-saving antibiotics? Many are produced by prokaryotes! They also churn out enzymes for everything from laundry detergent to food processing. And biofuels? Yup, some prokaryotes are on it, helping us find cleaner energy sources.

    • Antibiotics: Certain bacteria, like Streptomyces, are prolific producers of antibiotics. These natural compounds inhibit or kill other bacteria, providing a crucial defense against infections. The discovery and production of antibiotics by prokaryotes revolutionized medicine, saving countless lives. Ongoing research focuses on identifying new antibiotic-producing strains and developing novel strategies to combat antibiotic resistance.
    • Enzymes: Prokaryotes are veritable enzyme factories. These biological catalysts are used in various industrial processes, including food production, textile manufacturing, and pharmaceuticals. For example, bacteria produce enzymes like amylases (for starch breakdown), proteases (for protein degradation), and lipases (for fat digestion). The ability to mass-produce these enzymes using prokaryotic systems has significantly enhanced efficiency and sustainability in numerous industries.
    • Biofuels: As the world seeks sustainable energy alternatives, prokaryotes are emerging as key players in biofuel production. Certain bacteria and archaea can convert organic matter into biofuels like ethanol, butanol, and methane. For instance, methanogenic archaea produce methane from organic waste, which can be captured and used as a renewable energy source. Additionally, research efforts are focused on engineering prokaryotes to more efficiently produce biofuels from sustainable feedstocks.

  • Use in bioremediation (cleaning up pollutants): Got a polluted site? Some prokaryotes are like tiny cleanup crews, munching on nasty pollutants and making the environment cleaner. It’s like having microscopic superheroes on the job!

    • Bioremediation is the process of using biological agents, primarily microorganisms, to remove or neutralize pollutants from contaminated environments. Prokaryotes, with their diverse metabolic capabilities, play a central role in bioremediation.
    • Certain bacteria can degrade or transform a wide range of pollutants, including petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial solvents.
    • For example, Pseudomonas species are known for their ability to break down oil and other hydrocarbons, making them valuable in cleaning up oil spills. Similarly, some bacteria can accumulate heavy metals like mercury or arsenic, effectively removing them from contaminated water or soil.
    • Bioremediation offers a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional cleanup methods, such as excavation and incineration. By harnessing the natural abilities of prokaryotes, we can restore polluted ecosystems and protect human health.

  • Development of new diagnostic tools and therapies: Prokaryotes aren’t just about cleaning up messes; they’re also helping us create new ways to diagnose diseases and develop therapies. They’re like tiny medical researchers, offering insights into health and healing.

    • Prokaryotes are essential in the development of new diagnostic tools and therapies. Their unique properties and genetic makeup make them valuable resources for medical advancements.
    • Diagnostic Tools:
      • PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Enzymes derived from thermophilic bacteria, like Thermus aquaticus, are essential for PCR, a technique used to amplify DNA for diagnostic purposes. PCR is used to detect infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and cancer.
      • Biosensors: Prokaryotes can be engineered to act as biosensors, detecting specific substances or conditions in the body. For example, bacteria can be designed to glow or produce a detectable signal in the presence of certain pathogens or toxins.
    • Therapies:
      • Probiotics: Beneficial bacteria, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, are used as probiotics to promote gut health and boost the immune system. Probiotics can help restore the balance of the gut microbiome, which is essential for overall health.
      • Phage Therapy: Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are being explored as an alternative to antibiotics. Phage therapy can target and kill specific bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant strains, without harming human cells.

  • Genetic engineering and synthetic biology: Want to tweak a prokaryote’s DNA to make it do something new? Genetic engineering allows us to do just that! Synthetic biology takes it a step further, designing and building new biological systems.

    • Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering involves modifying the genetic material of an organism to produce desired traits or products. Prokaryotes are ideal for genetic engineering due to their simple structure, rapid growth, and ease of manipulation.
      • Applications:
        • Insulin Production: Genetically engineered bacteria, such as E. coli, are used to produce human insulin for the treatment of diabetes.
        • Vaccine Development: Prokaryotes can be engineered to produce antigens that stimulate an immune response, leading to the development of vaccines.
    • Synthetic Biology: Synthetic biology takes genetic engineering a step further by designing and building new biological systems. This involves creating synthetic DNA sequences, assembling them into functional circuits, and introducing them into cells to perform specific tasks.
      • Applications:
        • Biosensors: Synthetic biology can create highly specific and sensitive biosensors for detecting environmental pollutants, toxins, or disease markers.
        • Biomanufacturing: Synthetic biology can optimize the production of valuable compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and bioplastics, by engineering prokaryotic cells to act as efficient biomanufacturing platforms.

So, next time someone asks you which of the following organisms is a prokaryote, you’ll know it’s the one without a nucleus! Hopefully, this clears things up, and you can confidently identify these tiny but mighty life forms in the future.